First year students’ challenges Essay Example for Free

First year students’ challenges Essay Entering a collage is like entering to a new different culture for high school student. Students are not just entering a school, but they are entering an academic environment. Many challenges will be ahead for them since it is the first year of transition. Some students might need one or two semesters to adopt the new environment. The most common challenges that students will face are not only the academic challenge, but also time management and responsibility challenges. Academic challenge is the first difficulty for the freshman students. The academic workload is a lot more that they can think of. Indeed, they are required to read and research more for their homework, assignments, or research papers. For example, students are required to finish one book in one or two week in order to do their do assignment, while other classes also have much homework. Students cannot complain that they have much other homework to do, but they need to finish it one time, instead. Be able to do so, students will need to face another challenge that is time management. Time management will be the second challenge for the first year student as well. As I mentioned above, there are many workload that students need to finish, so student need to have time management. In fact, they need to plan what to do, how much time they need to spend for each of their homework, or they will not be able to finish it one time. For instance, they need to classify their work from urgent and important to important but not urgent. Form my own experience, I managed my work by considering which homework is more urgent then I did it first, and less urgent, I did it later. In addition, students will face the challenge of responsibility. After entering the college, the students will need to be on their owns. They need to have responsible for every activity they do, and every decision they make. They cannot put blame on somebody or something else. To instructor or other people, they are the mature now. If they are wake up late for school, for example, it is their fault, they cannot say because of this or because of that. In conclusion, the first year of transition can be one of the most challenges that they will have in their lives. They need to be more mature, and deal with the challenges they face by themselves.

Medical Advances

Medical Advances Three of the most significant medical advances of the last two centuries are sanitation, vaccination, and antibiotics. Each of these advances has engendered enormous positive social and economic impacts in developed societies. Sanitation has successfully impeded pathogenic growth in human living spaces, vaccines have protected humans from historically prolific diseases such as smallpox, and antibiotics have also saved countless human lives through daily sanitation and disease cure. However, the impact of these three advances has not been fully realized because they have not yet reached substantial portions of the developing world, vaccines for several prolific diseases continue to elude researchers, and misuse of antibiotics has led to resistant bacterial strains and other health hazards. The rudiments of urban sanitation systems have been developed several times throughout human history but was nowhere near fully realized until the era of western industrialization in the 20h century. Once urbanization in the bronze age began to increase population densities in urban centers, increases in waste production required the use of outflowing systems like rivers to properly dispose of waste. The first documented system for sanitation was developed in the city of Mohenjo-Daro in 2600 BCE, and consisted of slits cut in the floors of houses to allow waste to drop into containers next to streets, and bath houses with covered channels that led to the nearby Indus River (â€Å"Mohenjo-Daro†). In addition, cities in the Roman Republic built the first documented sewer networks; for instance a massive combined sewer and storm drain called the Cloaca Maxima, or â€Å"The Great Drain† that carried waste and runoff water from Romes civilian houses, public buildings, and b ath houses to the Tiber River (Rich). However, the era that followed the fall of the Roman Republic saw a regression in sanitation technology in which most of the worlds civilizations operated without sanitation systems. For instance, the most common method to remove waste from living spaces in medieval Europe was to dump it into the street, where materials such as urine, feces, and wastewater from other domestic activities gathered and fostered bacterial, viral, and pest growth (Faria). Exponential growth of populations around industrializing centers without planned infrastructures made the immediate need for sewer systems evident. Citizens had heretofore relied either on dumping waste directly into waterways or simple cesspits, and the rapid growth of households using primitive sanitation methods increased the rate of contamination of groundwater, rivers, and other sources of fresh water. Stagnant sewage in cramped urban living conditions provided ideal conditions for growth of pathogens and caused outbreaks in many m ajor cities in the mid-19th century; the most common were those of cholera and typhoid fever. It was clear that the need for advances in sanitation was imminent. The most famous outbreak of the industrialization period is that of cholera linked to the London Broad Street water pump in 1854, in which a nearby cesspool had leaked sewage into groundwater and contaminated the well the water pump was drawing water from. The statistical analysis of cholera cases by physician John Snow that determined the connection between disease and contaminated water from the river provided irrefutable evidence that separating water resources and sewage is key to maintaining public health (Johnson). Outbreaks such as these in combination with the proliferation of the strong repulsive odor of sewage across all major industrialized cities prompted government authorities to take action and begin implementation of large sewer networks to isolate sewage from local water supplies. Arguably the greatest advance in sanitation came about in 1908, when Jersey City Water Works began to add chlorine to its water supply network in a practice now called chlorination. The process involves the addition of chlorine to water to form an equilibrium solution composed of chlorine, Hydrochloric acid and Hypochlorous acid, the last of which plays the main role of disinfection. Systemic chlorination drastically decreased the incidence of water-borne illnesses such as typhoid and cholera (Kitsap Public Utility District). The final major advance came in the 1950s, when the United States government provided funds for states to build wastewater treatment plants, which resulted in the majority of U.S. cities discharging treated water into rivers and oceans instead of raw sewage, an important component of sanitation that minimizes re-uptake of water harboring harmful pathogens and microorganisms. Development of modern sanitation systems has a significant effect on economic growth because its presence dramatically reduces the incidence of water-borne diseases and precludes their burden on worker productivity, student absenteeism, and medical costs. In addition, the reduction of sewage contamination in the developed world saves governments the cost of cleaning up environments to protect resources for human use. These benefits place in stark contrast the crude state of sanitation in parts of the developing world, who fail to reap these benefits because sanitation systems have not been implemented. In fact, according to the World Health Organization, investing in sanitation technology in developing countries is cost-beneficial and results in a â€Å"US$5 [to] US$11 economic benefit per US$1 invested† (Walter, and Hutton 39). Thus, cost-benefit analysis clearly favors investment by humanity for the whole of humanity. The social benefits of effective sanitation are not as tangible as economic ones but are no less significant. Accessible facilities for private and sanitary hygienic activities preserves human dignity and encourages sanitary habits. The relationship between cleanliness and moral purity has been culturally accepted throughout human history, and scientific support that clean environments promote moral behavior is presented in an upcoming paper in Psychological Science (Elton). The social harmony that proper sanitation promotes supports the idea of implementing sanitation in the developing world to deal with social unrest and violence. The second medical innovation, vaccination, is a more recent and specific advance in disease prevention. Its conceptual predecessor was inoculation, which was first documented credibly in 15th century China. The practice involved implantation of a disease agent such as pus from smallpox into a healthy individual who had never been infected to produce immunity (Needham 134). Vaccination replaced inoculation in 1796 when Edward Jenner used pus from a cowpox patient to inoculate a child; the child was then exposed to smallpox and subsequently did not exhibit infection with the virus. Shortly afterwards the British government mandated vaccination of children from smallpox, the first government push for mass vaccination in history; by 1800 â€Å"100,000 people had been vaccinated in Europe, and vaccination had begun in the United States† (Minna Stern, and Markel 613-614). In 1885, Louis Pasteur developed a rabies vaccine using samples obtained from dried infected rabbit tissue, wh ich was the first to be manufactured from weakened microorganisms. Further advances in biology and understanding of germs from the 19th century led to widespread research, development and implementation of vaccines to spread immunity from prolific diseases in the 20th century. A vaccine is now known as a preparation of attenuated or dead bacteria or viruses to stimulate production of antibodies in a patient. Although weakened pathogens carried a greater risk for infection than dead ones, they generally induce a stronger immune response and longer lasting immunity. A principal medical advance that allowed the production of durable vaccines is attenuation, the practice of passing the target virus through a nonhuman host to encourage adaptation through mutations when the virus replicated. Subsequent introduction into a human host to which the virus is not adapted to replicate allows the immune system to produce antibodies to recognize the same pathogen in future exposures. The development of consistently effective vaccines led to systematic mass immunizations against several worldwide diseases such as smallpox starting in the 19th century and polio in the mid-20th century. Government oversight in cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO) was essential to these worldwide efforts, and smallpox was in fact declared eradicated by the WHO in 1979 . Polio and measles are currently in the process of eradication (â€Å"Smallpox†). However, not all viruses are created equal, and certain viruses have eluded attempts by scientists to engineer an effective vaccine. The HIV virus is one such example; its high mutability and genetic divergence complicate attempts to design a vaccine in the same fashion as that of historically successful ones. To address this need, research to develop new types of vaccines that utilize only protein subunits of pathogens or delivery of viral DNA is ongoing. The elimination of globally endemic disease has been key to lowering mortality and raising life expectancy around the world, but has also engendered an interesting array of social and economic developments. For instance, the unequivocal success of vaccines against globally prolific viruses has undermined the economic motive for further production for vaccines for diseases more prevalent in the developing world. Because citizens in poorer nations cannot come close to affording the price of a vaccine in developed nations, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies lack the financial incentive to expand their markets. Solutions to lack of economic incentives include academic research and government incentives for vaccine development. Mass vaccination against the worlds historically endemic viruses has altered social attitudes in many ways. For instance, during the Middle Ages life expectancy was short due to the rampant disease and epidemics; death was accepted as a necessary part of life, and often as an act of God (Dumond). The drastic drop in mortality due to diseases such as smallpox in the late 19th and 20th centuries raised the life expectancy of the average human and replaced the cultural acceptance of death with a cultural appreciation of life. In other words, living longer and delaying death is now a universal goal because disease has dramatically improved the prospect of living up to biological potential. Thus, the success of vaccines has cultured a social ignorance of the danger of viruses because deaths due to disease are so much rarer than in previous historical eras. The last of the three medical innovations, antibiotics, has been used since humans have experimented with chemicals and substances from plants to discover remedies for diseases. Disinfection typically involved use of either plants believed to have healing properties or chemicals known to inhibit or kill organisms. Arsenic was one such remedy, and its broad toxicity meant that patients would also suffer serious side effects. Thus, the discovery of substances with high specificity and few side effects in humans was one of the great historical developments in modern medicine. The first discovery in modern antibiotics was of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming due to a coincidence now famous in science: a Staphyloccocus sample mistakenly left in the open had been growth-inhibited by a Penicillium mold. However, a German scientist named Gerhard Domagk was the first to develop a commercial antibiotic called Prontosil with broad action against Gram-positive cocci. Mass production of antibiotics was simple and relied on fermentation in large containers of growth medium for the target organism to produce the secondary metabolite. Modern development of partially synthetic or entirely synthetic antibiotics involves either chemical modification of metabolites after fermentation or synthesis from a naturally occurring skeleton. Unfortunately, the misuse of antibiotics is leading to increasing prevalence of resistant strains of bacteria around the world. Incorrect diagnosis, improper administration, improper disposal, and overuse in livestock often lead to antibiotic resistance because bacteria can perform horizontal gene transfer through plasmid exchange. Thus, resistance genes can rapidly proliferate in a population of bacteria once one has genetically mutated and become immune to a particular antibiotic. For example, if a patient using a prescribed antibiotic stops taking it before the infection is completely eradicated, horizontal gene transfer will allow the few bacteria who have developed resistance throughout the duration of the infection to pass on the resistance gene and prolong the infection. One of the most alarming cases of resistance is that of Staphylococcus aureus, or the staph infection; the bacterium has shown historically to be extremely adaptable. For example, 40% of patients with staph i nfections were resistant to administration of penicillin by 1950, less than 10 years after the antibiotic was introduced (Chambers 178). Staphyloccocus aureus is now also resistant to a variety of other antibiotics such as tetracycline and methicillin. Although this problem has traditionally been isolated to hospitals, Community-acquired MRSA is now expanding in urban communities, and is responsible for several fatal conditions such as necrotizing fasciitis, or flesh eating disease. The economic benefits of antibiotics, which are similar to vaccines because it deals with pathogens through a direct biological pathway, are complicated by the rise of bacterial resistance. However, this has also provided economic impetus to invest in development of synthetic antibiotics as demand for alternatives rises. More specifically, the threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria like MRSA has spurred the development of oxazolidones, a newer class of antibiotics against Gram-positive bacteria. The first generation of this class of antibiotics is Linezolid, which disrupts the protein synthesis of Gram-positive bacteria; its mechanism for disruption occurs at a much earlier step than most other protein inhibitor antibiotics (Brickner 175). Linezolid is currently utilized as a last resort against MRSA and resistance has been low ever since its introduction in 1999 (Jones, Ross Castanheira, and Mendes 424). It is likely that research into synthetic drugs, the newest development in th e antibiotic industry, will continue as long as antibiotic resistance persists. The widespread use of antibiotics in medicines, soaps, and household cleaning supplies has created the social perception of a sterile domestic environment for human activities. This perception is partially justified in that regular use in daily routines and sicknesses has dramatically reduced illness and engendered a social paradigm shift away from the concept of death comparable to that of vaccination. In fact, use of antibiotics may have brought about a complacency towards bacterial threats to the human body because its use is ingrained in human hygienic habits. However, the recent revelation of superbugs like MRSA has also brought about a social awareness of antibiotic resistance, and this may result in another shift towards understanding how to handle antibiotics responsibly. In sum, sanitation, vaccination, and antibiotic implementation has drastically reduced the prevalence of classic diseases in modern society. Previous scourges of humanity such as smallpox, cholera, and the black plague that ravaged human life are now essentially historical footnotes in the chronology of human medical achievements. Medical advances have brought about generally positive economic and social changes through reduction of health care through prevention, and a culture less concerned with death on a daily basis. However, these advances have not been distributed equally among all peoples of the world; many citizens of developing countries without effective sanitation, medical supplies, and access to vaccines of antibiotics continue to be at the mercy of the aforementioned scourges of humanity. References Brickner, SJ (1996). Oxazolidinone antibacterial agents. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2 (2): 175–94. . Chambers, HF (2001). The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2): 178–82. . â€Å"Chlorination of Drinking Water. Kitsap Public Utility District. 005 2004. Department of Health, Web. 5 Nov 2009. . Development and Cooperation SDC, Web. 6 Nov 2009. . Dumond, Katie. Attitudes Towards Death: Past to Present. University of Maine at Machias. 12 005 2009. Web. 2 Nov 2009. . Elton, Catherine. Do Clean Smells Encourage Clean Behavior? TIME 23 010 2009: n. pag. Web. 5 Nov 2009. . Faria, Miguel A. Medical History Hygiene and Sanitation. Hacienda Publishing, Inc.. 2002. Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Web. 5 Nov 2009. . Hodges, L. (1977). Environmental Pollution (2nd ed.). New York: Rinehart and Winston. p.189. Hutton, Gary, and Lawrence Haller. Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at the Global Level. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. 2004. World Health Organization, Web. 1 Nov 2009. . Johnson, Steven (2006). The Ghost Map: The Story of Londons Most Terrifying Epidemic and How it Changed Science, Cities and the Modern World. Riverhead Books. p.206. Jones RN, Ross JE, Castanheira M, Mendes RE (December 2008). United States resistance surveillance results for linezolid (LEADER Program for 2007). Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 62 (4): 416–26. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2008.10.010. Minna Stern, Alexandra, and Howard Markel. The History of Vaccines and Immunization: Familiar Patterns, New Challenges. Health Affairs 24.3 (2005): 612-614. Web. 1 Nov 2009. . Mohenjo-daro. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online. 25 Oct. 2009 . Needham, Joseph. (1999). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6, Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 134. Olesen OF, Lonnroth A, Mulligan B (2009). Human vaccine research in the European Union. Vaccine 27 (5): 640–5. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.11.064. Rich, Hamper. Roman Sanitation. The Rth Dimension. 20 001 2008. Rich Hamper, Web. 5 Nov 2009. . Smallpox. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology: Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases. http://web.archive.org/web/20071009141639/http://www.afip.org/Departments/infectious/sp/text/1_1.htm. Waksman, Selman A. (1947). What Is an Antibiotic or an Antibiotic Substance?. Mycologia 39 (5): 565–569. doi:10.2307/3755196.

Comparing Mores Utopia and Our Modern Dystopia :: comparison compare contrast essays

Thomas More was born in London in 1478. He studied at Oxford where he took a profound love of classical literature. In Utopia, More shows his own skills in humanism. In this story, modeled after Plato's Republic, More examines his culture against a hypothetical culture he invents. His Utopia varies greatly from both his society and our society today. Four ways Utopia differs from our society are social system, attitude towards jewelry, marriage customs, and religion. First, the people of More's Utopia have a complex communism compared to our modern neo-fascist culture. In Utopia, the government owns the business world. The government forces men to work the land in two-year stints. In modern society, the government does not own the economy but it does control the economy. The government does not make men be farmers but it does tell farmers how much to grow. Furthermore, it penalizes those who disobey its command. Second, Utopians treat precious metals and jewels radically different than modern society. Today people adorn all sorts of jewelry to beautify themselves or attract attention to them. These precious metals are golden calves to many people. People today are like the Anemolian ambassadors, they strut their fine jewels because they are "more proud than wise, they decide, they decide to dress as splendidly as the very gods." Third, the Utopian attitude towards money differs from modern society. The Utopians highly prize virginity. The government forbids marriage for life those who commit premarital intercourse. Yet the percentage of people marrying without premarital intercourse in our society is minute. In most cases, the couple has a long-standing sexual relationship. Fourth, the religion of the Utopians is much like modern religion with one major exception. The religious beliefs of both societies are pluralistic. Utopia allows all religion except our most dominant religion: secular humanism (i.e. "atheism"). A man, who believes blind chance not divine providence, determines actions, is less than a man. In our culture of neo-Darwinism and "man is pure matter," everything is by chance.

Moby Dick :: essays research papers

Moby Dick is an extremely long novel written by Herman Melville. This book is an epic tale of a crazed sea captain hunting the whale that bit off his leg told through the eyes of a school teacher. As the story begins Ishmael is at the local boating dock looking for work. Ishmael being a school teacher has allot of time off as of the moment because the school is at recess, for what reason i don't know. He is in a tavern talking amongst the whalers. He asks if they know of any ships on witch he could board as a hand for the captain. One of the stories he receives is of a man named Ahab. He is offering good pay and good work for any man who wants to join him on his ship. the only problem is that people say that he is a rather evil man. Ishmael shes one of the ships hands and boards for a trip witch he will never forget. The ship sets sail and every thing seems to be going smoothly. Everything except one tiny detail, Ishmael hasn't seen the captain Ahab. He knows hes there because he has heard men talking to him, but Ishmael has yet to see him. When Ishmael finally dose see captain Ahab he is shocked. The man is a very evil looking person. Ishmael can see the fire in his eyes. He is shocked by the pure hatred of witch Ishmael speaks of Moby Dick, the whale who took his leg. Because Ahab comes off as such an evil man Ishmael doesn't want to become any sort of a friend of him. He develops a slight dislikement of him and begins to call him Stubb when he isn't around. As the story goes on it describes in very good detail what happens on their whaling trip. I don't know if this is a normal whaling trip or not because i don't do much whaling myself. Ishmael describes in great detail all actions taking place on the ship that he sees. Until one day. One day as this ship is sailing along a whale is spotted. It isn't just any whale though, it is Moby Dick. Ahab becomes what seems to be almost possessed. He is so enraged with the whale that he orders everything to be stopped and every man is to concentrate on killing the whale. He has every man loaded in to the whaling boats and he begins his chase. He shouts at his men, and screams at the whale. He curses it as if it were from hell.

Impact of Right to Work in India

Economic Environment Management PROJECT Impact of the â€Å"Right to work programme† in India SUBMITTED BY – Yash Jhaveri IIM Kozhikode Batch: EPGP04: Date of Submission: 27th January 2013 Contents INTRODUCTION : Right to Work In INDIA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 What is NREGA / MGNREGA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. WHAT ARE THE GENERAL BENEFITS RTW / MGNREGA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 HOW IS THE PROGRAM FINANCED? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 Financing pattern †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Release of funds †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Comparison : RTW/MGNREGA Vs other government based employment schemes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 Impact of RIGHT TO WORK / MGNREGA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 Increase in GDP †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 Effect on Inflation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Recommendations †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 REFERENCES †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 2 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE INTRODUCTION : Right to Work In INDIA Every human being have rights to fundamental aspects like right to food, life and education. India is a country where approximately thirty percent of the population is below the poverty line.In order to provide millions of humans with rights to life, right to education and right to food that only have access to economic assets like labor power, providing them employment is very important. Unemployment i s one of the major concern and reason for spreading poverty in India. The right to work according to Article 39 of the Indian Constitution urges the State to ensure that â€Å"the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means to livelihood†, and that â€Å"there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women.RIGHT TO WORK Program is implemented in India under Mahatma Gandhi national rural employment guarantee act – MGNREGA. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 (MGNREGA) was notified in 2005, 7TH Septmeber. What is NREGA / MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act was earlier knows as NRGEA. Main aim of this program is to enhance the livelihood andsecurity of people residing in rural areas. This act guarantees a minimum 100 days of wage-employment in a financial year to a rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.Important original provisions of the MGNREGA are a s outlined below: i. Every household in the rural India shall have a right to a minimum of 100 days of guaranteed employment every year for minimum one adult (above 18 years of age) member, for doing UNSKILLED manual labour, compensation for which is fixed at Rs 120 (one hUndred twenty only) on daily basis. ii. Only productive work shall be undertaken under this program. A list of permissible and preferred works has to be prepared by a state council who shall implement the program.Such preferred works are identified basis the benefits of socio-economical work, the contribution made by such socio-economical work to social equity, and the ability of such work to create assets on permanent basis iii. For successful implementation and for labourers benefit the up-gradation of kills are required of unskilled workers. The program may provide such training and expenses towards these trainings iv. Taking into the consideration the guide lines of states council, Wages to such labourers to be paid in cash or in kind or both. v.To make it easy for the applicant, the program states that employment shall be provided within a radius of 5 kilometres of the village where the applicant resides at the time of applying. In cases where employment is provided beyond such limit of 5 kilometres , transport allowances and daily living allowances shall be paid in accordance with Programme Rules; vi. Given the scenario where at least twenty women are employed at a site, a provision shall be made for one of them to be deputed to look after all / any children under the age of six who may be brought to the worksite if they accompany their parents.The person deputed for such task of minding the children shall be paid the statutory minimum wage; vii. A small portion of the wages not exceeding 5% may be deducted as a contribution to welfare schemes organized for the benefit of labourers employed under the Programme. These welfare schemes are insurance: health and accident, survivor benefits, maternity benefits and social security schemes. 3 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE WHAT ARE THE GENERAL BENEFITS RTW / MGNREGA: i. ii. The program provides social protection by providing employment opportunities to the people living in rural India.The program promises livelihood security for the underprivileged and poor through creation of durable assets, improved water conditions and security, soil conversion and as a result of soil conversion higher land productivity The program provides services like drought-proofing and flood management in rural India Through the processes of a rights-based legislation, this program empowers the socially disadvantaged, specifically women, Scheduled Castes and Schedules Tribes The program ensures strengthening decentralized and participatory planning through convergence of various initiatives like anti-poverty and livelihood The program works on grass root levels by deepening democracy by strengthening Panchayati Raj Institution s MGNREGA is a powerful tool which implements transparency and accountability in governance thereby ensuring inclusive growth in rural India.This is because of its impact on social protection, security of livelihood and democratic empowerment. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. HOW IS THE PROGRAM FINANCED? Financing pattern The center will bear the appended costs. 1. For unskilled manual workers: 100% cost of wages 2. For semi skilled and skilled workers :75% cost of wages and material 3. All administrative expense as determined and as per guidelines of central government which essentially includes salary and allowances of program officers and their support staff and work site facilities 4. Administrative expenses of CEGC The state will bear the appended costs 1. For semi skilled and skilled workers:25% cost of wages and material 2.If in case the state government cannot provide wage employment within 15 days of application, the state government to pay unemployment allowance to the applicant. 3. A dministrative expenses of SEGC Release of funds: 1. Unlike in other state run programs where the funds are pre allocated, in this programme , the release of funds is wholly dependent upon the proposals given by the state 2. The ministry of rural development will decide on the sanction of funds once it receives state’s formulated annual work plan and budget proposal. (AWBP) 3. The annual work plan and budget proposal is based on the demands of funds received from the state’s districts and panchayats of districts 4.AWBP also reports the use the of previous funds received by the state and also on key performance indicators determine under the scheme enabling an assessment of proposals received by state government. The said assessment is of qualitative nature. This enables the ministry to decide on the finalizing the amount for the state for the given financial year. The actual disbursement of funds to the state also depends upon the utilization of funds previously allocat ed for the same state. 4 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE 5. The district programme coordinator or the state applies to the ministry of rural development , once the 60% of funds released earlier are utilized, for next round of funding under CEGF 6. On receipt to disbursement of funds by the center, the state government will release the funds to the program within 15 days.Comparison : RTW/MGNREGA Vs other government based employment schemes There are a few valid reasons why a right to work- guarantee of employment works better as compared to fly by night program introduced by center and state: †¢ guarantee of employment increases the purchasing capacity of those who are demanding work †¢ This program ensures the inclusion of the poorest of the poor in employment schemes. †¢ The Program brings a sense of security in the laborers lives. Employment guarantee programme boosts the confidence of laborers with respect to high local employment prospect and hen ce discourage season based migration, most laborers resort to in difficult times. Right to work is A legally binding employment guarantee program is far more durable and reliable than fly by night schemes and programs run by state government which have proven on more than one occasions to be extremely short-lived. Impact of RIGHT TO WORK / MGNREGA Increase in GDP Planned expenditure of government is increasing as government is spending (budgeted 33,000 crore for 2012-13) on welfare or construction projects to give work to the unemployed people. A substantial part of this spending goes as the wages to the direct labour. As marginal propensity to consume (MPC) of this labourers is very close to 1, the effect of this government expenditure to the increase of GDP will be very high , which in turn leads to high growth in GDP. As per Keynesian model , increase in the government expenditure will make the GDP grow which in turn amounts for higher output.MGNREGA as Accelerator High proportio n of agricultural population actually owns land. After spending on normal consumption for livelihood, the amount saved is mostly spent on their own farms. So the production from their land also increases leading to further increase in GDP. Change in Interest Rates As we have already discussed, because of the MGNREGA, GDP is supposed to increase, interest rate is higher than earlier. Because of the increase in government spending, consumption also increases, i. e. , demand in the goods market increases leading to a rightward shift of the demand curve. With an increase in output, interest rate also increases.As interest rate increase, investors will be less willing to borrow money from banks. As a result, capital Investment will come down. Decreasing investment will have a negative effect on GDP which will eventually come down. So the net effect on GDP by government sPending for MGNREGA employment will be little less. 5 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE Effect on Infla tion Because of the MGNREGA, (i) unemployment is reducing and (ii) people who had a no / nominal income previously are now having nominal /higher income. The overall effect would be reduction of unemployment in the economy. MGNREGA leads to inflation but only in the short run.The higher wage rates in MGNREGA increases the wages of the workers who are working under MGNREGA thereby increasing their marginal propensity to consume. This leads to increase in the demand of food items. In the short run this leads to increase in the prices of the commodities mainly the food items and thus leading to increase in inflation. Also the workers employed under MGNREGA are unavailable for agricultural work during the harvest season, this leads to shortage of farm workers. As a result labourers need to be hired by offering higher wages than that offered under NREGA. As the cost of labour is increased, the effect of this can be observed in the form of increase in the prices of the farm output and thu s shifting the Aggregate supply AS curve to the left.The above mentioned phenomenon can be observed only in the short run because in the long run the infrastructure activities carried out under MGNREGA like construction of wells and dams for irrigation purpose, leveling of roads and water conservation and harvesting will increase the farm output produced thereby leading to increase in the supply of food items thus shifting the AS curve back to the right and thus reducing inflation. Implications Since its inception, the Act has generated 1112. 03 crore person-days. Almost 70% of the MG NREGA labour. The average wage earned has risen from ? 65 per person day in 2006 to ? 100 in 2011. Inclusive Growth – The share of SC/ST families in the work provided under MGNREGA over the previous five years has ranged between 51-61%. Women workforce participation under the Scheme has surpassed the statutory minimum requirement of 33 per cent. Over the previous five years it has ranged between 40-48%. In 2011, there were allegations that the programme was no more effective than other poverty alleviation plans in India.Rumors and reports had a buzz of corruption, controversy and scam written all over MGNREGA. Corrupt officials puncturing the budgets that are allocated, government expenditure routed from the funds for deficit financing, poor quality of infrastructure built under this program, were some of the issues that were being pointed at and questioned. 6 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE Recommendations The MGNREGA scheme has been designed as a supply-based model, where the number of works undertaken is dependent on the amount of labourers that register with the scheme. This caters to the primary objective of generating wage employment in India.Although to ensure quality-driven growth, the model has to incorporate a demand-based side, where the labourers are given work according to the value-addition required. The clause about providing an employment within five kilometers of the residence of a labourer needs tweaking. 7 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT – KOZHIKODE REFERENCES * NREGA Report to the people – 2nd Feb ‘12 (http://nrega. nic. in/circular/Report%20to%20the%20people_english%20web. pdf) * NREGA Website (http://nrega. nic. in/netnrega/home. aspx) * ‘The Macroeconomics of NREGA’ – Live Mint article (http://www. livemint. com/Opinion/nKoASa6hFXSX3w8Wd0EeWI/Views–The-macroeconomicsof-Nrega. html) * Macroeconomics – N. Gregory Mankiw * ‘The Modern Minimum-Wage Controversy and Its Antecedents’ – A paper by Thomas C. Leonard